Branches of Biological
Anthropology
Contents
Branches
of Biological anthropology:
Biological
anthropology is the subdiscipline of anthropology that studies human evolution
and human variation by using biological materials. It is also known as physical
anthropology, which originally referred to the study of human biology within the
framework of evolution and with an emphasis on the interaction between biology and
culture. Physical anthropology is the original term, and it reflects the
initial interests of anthropologists in describing human physical variation.
The American Association of Physical Anthropologists, its journal, as well as
many college courses and numerous publications, retain this term. The
designation biological anthropology reflects the shift in emphasis to more
biologically oriented topics, such as genetics, evolutionary biology,
nutrition, physiological adaptation, and growth and development. This shift
occurred largely because of advances in the field of genetics since the late
1950s. Although we’ve continued to use the traditional term in the title of
this textbook, you’ll find that all the major topics pertain to biological
issues.
Paleoanthropology is
the study of human evolution, particularly as revealed in the fossil record, is
a major subfield of physical anthropology. Thousands of specimens of human
ancestors (mostly fragmentary) are now kept in research collections. Taken
together, these fossils span about 7 million years of human prehistory; and
although incomplete, they provide us with significantly more knowledge than was
available just 15 years ago. It’s the ultimate goal of paleoanthropological research
to identify the various early hominid species, establish a chronological
sequence of relationships among them, and gain insights into their adaptation
and behavior. Only then will we have a clear picture of how and when humankind
came into being.
Primatology is the
study of nonhuman primates, has become increasingly important since the late
1950s (Fig. 1-9). Behavioral studies, especially those conducted on groups in
natural environments, have implications for many scientific disciplines. Because
nonhuman primates are our closest living relatives, identifying the underlying factors
related to social behavior, communication, infant care, reproductive behavior,
and so on, helps us to better understand the natural forces that have shaped so
many aspects of modern human behavior. But sadly, an even more important reason
to study nonhuman primates is that most species are now threatened or seriously
endangered. Indeed, as you will learn, some are very close to extinction. Only
through research will scientists be able to recommend policies that can better
ensure the survival of many nonhuman primates and thousands of other species as
well.
Osteology, the
study of the skeleton, is central to physical anthropology. In fact, it’s so
important that when many people think of biological anthropology, the first thing
that comes to mind is bones (although they often ask about dinosaurs). The emphasis
on osteology is partly due to the fact that a thorough knowledge of skeletal structure
and function is critical to the interpretation of fossil material. Bone biology
and physiology are of major importance to many other aspects of physical
anthropology. Many osteologists specialize in studies that emphasize various measurements
of skeletal elements. This type of research is essential, for example, to
determine stature and growth patterns in archaeological populations. One
subdiscipline of osteology, called paleopathology,
is the study of disease and trauma in skeletons from archaeological sites.
Paleopathology is a prominent subfield that investigates the prevalence of
trauma, certain infectious diseases (such as syphilis and tuberculosis),
nutritional deficiencies, and many other conditions that can leave evidence in
bone (Fig. 1-10). This research tells us a great deal about the lives of
individuals and populations from the past. Paleopathology also yields information
regarding the history of certain disease processes, and for this reason it’s of
interest to scientists in biomedical fields.
Forensic anthropology
is directly related to osteology and paleopathology, and many people have
become interested in it because of forensic shows on television. Technically,
this approach is the application of anthropological (usually osteological and sometimes
archaeological) techniques to legal issues. Forensic anthropologists help
identify skeletal remains in mass disasters or other situations where a human
body has been found. Forensic anthropologists have been involved in numerous
cases having important legal, historical, and human consequences. They were
instrumental in identifying the skeletons of most of the Russian imperial
family, executed in 1918; and many participated in the overwhelming task of
trying to identify the remains of victims of the September 11, 2001, terrorist
attacks in the United States. Anatomical studies are another area of interest
for physical anthropologists. In living organisms, bones and teeth are
intimately linked to the muscles and other tissues that surround and act on
them. Consequently, a thorough knowledge of soft tissue anatomy is essential to
the understanding of biomechanical relationships involved in movement.
Knowledge of such relationships is fundamental to the interpretation of the
structure and function of limbs and other structures in extinct animals now
represented only by fossilized remains. For these reasons and others, many physical
anthropologists specialize in anatomical studies. In fact, several physical anthropologists
hold professorships in anatomy departments at universities and medical schools.
Dental Anthropology is
the study of the development, eruption, number, size, morphology, modification,
wear, and pathology of teeth, among other topics, in order to answer questions
like dietary pattern, evolution of cusping and its relationship with diet and
culture. Dental anthropology studies the teeth formula, cariogenesis, evolution
of cusping and pathological development in order to reflect on the mechanisms
of evolution.
Human genetics is
the study of inheritance of human traits. It is used in biological anthropology
in order to better understand the
biological variations among contemporary human populations. Human genetics
encompasses a variety of overlapping fields including: classical genetics,
cytogenetics, molecular genetics, biochemical genetics, genomics, population
genetics, developmental genetics, clinical genetics, and genetic counseling.
Population Genetics is
the study of the genetic composition of populations, including distributions
and changes in genotype and phenotype frequency in response to the processes of
natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow. Biological
anthropologists use the approach of population genetics to interpret microevolutionary
patterns of human variation. Population genetics is the area of research that,
among other things, examines allele frequencies in populations and attempts to
identify the various factors that cause allele frequencies to change in specific
groups.
